State of the Greater Fundy Ecosystem

GREATER FUNDY ECOSYSTEM RESEARCH PROJECT

UNB Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management

State of the Greater Fundy Ecosystem

Historical notes on Fundy National Park and the GFE

Pre-European - The area of Fundy National Park was populated by the Micmac and Maleseet peoples of the Eastern Woodland Culture. The Micmac occupied the eastern half of New Brunswick and also extended into Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. The Maliseets, a people closely related to the Micmac, inhabited the St. John River valley. The Maliseet spoke a slightly different but related language to the Micmac and also had some distinctive customs (Stewart, 1989). Both peoples practiced a seasonal lifestyle, migrating between the coast and the interior lands in search of food and other sustenance. Occupation of the GFE by native peoples appears to have been transitory as there is a lack of archaeological remains and few artifacts indicating permanent settlement (Hirvonen and Madill, 1978).

General distribution of aboriginal peoples within New Brunswick ca. 1700
(Davis, 1991)

late 1500s - Portuguese, French and other fishermen regularly traversed the Bay of Fundy (Woodley, 1985).

late 1600s - French settlers became fairly well established in the Bay of Fundy region. The Bay is named “Bay Francaise”(Woodley, 1985).

1710 - Acadian towns spread along the shore of the Bay. The French village of Chpoudi was established near the mouth of the modern Shepody River (Woodley, 1985).

1755 - The Acadians were expelled from the region by the British. Settlers from British colonies began to settle in the area (Woodley, 1985).

1765 - The first land grants were made in the present-day areas of Moncton, Hopewell and Hillsborough Parishes. The first tenants to arrive and settle in Hopewell Parish were twenty Pennsylvanian German families (Allardyce, 1994).

ca. 1800 - Settlers slowly filtered into the Fundy NP area from communities further up the Bay of Fundy. The Shepody Road, an old military road connecting Saint John with eastern parts of the province, provided access to this area (Allardyce, 1994).

1802 - Two Hopewell farmers made the first petition for land along the Salmon River in what is now Fundy NP. Legal issues involving the
ownership of the land delayed its initial settlement for several years (Allardyce, 1994).

1803 - Until this year, New Brunswick supplied the bulk of pine logs for the British Navy for use in the construction of masts for naval vessels (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1811 - The lower Saint John River was said to be "denuded of great pine"; British Navy contractors began to seek other sources of this valuable softwood (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1818 - Loyalists from Saint John claimed an area at the mouth of the Salmon River. Their interests were centred on controlling the mouth of the river for anticipated lumbering activities further upstream. Ownership issues delayed their taking possession of the land until 1832 (Allardyce, 1994).

1822 - A petition for land on both sides of the Point Wolfe River was made by John Ward, a timber exporter based at Saint John, and several of his partners. In the coming years, upwards of forty schooners were involved in transporting lumber from lumbering locations along the Bay of Fundy to Saint John. Saint John soon developed into a major port exporting lumber to and constructing ships for international markets (Allardyce, 1994).

1823 - A land grant of 500 acres (202 ha.) was made to John Ward at the mouth of the Point Wolfe River and 300 acres (121 ha.) were granted to each of his four partners. By October 1824, two piers had been constructed at the mouth of the river (Allardyce, 1994).

1824 - A petition was made for 500 acres (202 ha.) of land along the Goose (or Esh) River. A sawmill was soon constructed at the river's mouth (Allardyce, 1994).

1825-26 - A saw mill was constructed at the mouth of the Point Wolfe River. Lumber was shipped by schooner to Saint John (Allardyce, 1994).

early 1830s - The first permanent settlements began to be built around the Point Wolfe lumber mill and on lands along the Salmon River (Allardyce, 1994).

1831 - The Point Wolfe lumbering operation employed 20 men. An estimated 750,000 board feet of lumber were removed annually. A man-made mill pond existed on the site by 1834 (Allardyce, 1994).

Lumbermen felling trees in New Brunswick (ca. 1905)
(Photo: Olsen Collection/Fundy NP/Waldo)

Hauling logs by horse team (ca. 1895)
(Photo: Olsen Collection/Fundy NP/Waldo)

ca. 1832 - The first settlers established themselves along the Salmon River, many moving down from the Shepody Road. Land was cleared for farmsteads. At this time the land around the present-day village of Alma was considered an ideal location for settlement along the coast. As well as undertaking limited farming, the early settlers in the area fished for Herring and Shad. Fishing weirs which took advantage of the rise and fall of the tides, were built in many areas along the coast (Allardyce, 1994).

1834 - An early surveyor's map showed the first evidence of brows along the Point Wolfe River. Brows were steep sided clearings along major streams that were cleared of vegetation to enable logs to roll into the river. Lumber slideways were also constructed for this purpose. Today, the sites of former brows are still visible in some areas along the Point Wolfe River (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

Logs sliding off a brow into the Point Wolfe River
(Photo: Fundy NP Collection)

1835 - The government undertook the first extended survey of the region. The surveys reported heavy forest cover in the vicinity of Fundy NP and tall stands of Spruce, Birch, Beech and Maple. The reports also mentioned that the damp climate of the coast minimized the occurrence of forest fires (Allardyce, 1994).

1835 - Five hundred acres (202 ha.) of land along the Salmon River were granted to entrepreneur Robert Rankin of Saint John. Rankin soon secured an additional 227 acres (92 ha.) between Point Wolfe and Herring Cove and another 200 acres (81 ha.) nearby. Although Rankin’s lumber business owned actively lumbered timber properties throughout New Brunswick, no lumbering camps or mills were immediately established in this area (Allardyce, 1994).

1835 - White Pine continued to be overharvested. New Brunswick's exports of White Pine fell by one-half of their 1825 level. Spruce began to become a more marketable product (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1836 - A sawmill was erected at the mouth of the Salmon River. Forests near the mouth of the river were harvested for the first time (Allardyce, 1994). In the first few years, mostly Spruce and some Fir and Birch were cut. It is possible that some Pine was harvested out as well. The selective cutting of prime Red Spruce (i.e. highgrading) left few good seed trees to replenish the forest (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1838 - The first mill dam was built on Goose Creek. Two additional dams were reported to have been built at the head of the tide on the Big Salmon River and also a short distance upstream. A dam was also constructed on the Little Salmon River. The dams were criticized for preventing the upstream passage of fish (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

ca. 1842 - John Ward sold the Point Wolfe River lumbering operation to the Vernon family of Saint John. The Point Wolfe settlement grew as the size and scope of the lumbering operation increased (Allardyce, 1994).

1845 - The first homestead was established on Bennett Lake and a lumber mill was constructed at the head of Bennett Brook. Similar settlements soon appeared on other large lakes in the park area (Allardyce, 1994).

Land clearance for settlement (Photo: Fundy NP/Alma)

1850 - Fishing along the Fundy coast was described in a government report as irregular and practiced whenever fish strike or settlers feel the need to catch them. A typical settler fished between May and August and spent the other months lumbering. The Goose River Harbour was described as having good line-fishing opportunities for Cod, Pollock and Haddock. Trout were said to be plentiful in area streams. Near the Salmon River, brush weirs were used to catch Shad. In summer, drift net-equipped fishing boats from French Canadian villages up the shore cruised areas of the bay where Shad were plentiful (Allardyce, 1994).

The government report noted that lumber mills along the Fundy coast were blocking rivers and preventing Salmon runs. Implicated mills included those on the Point Wolfe and Goose Rivers. Large quantities of sawdust and mill rubbish were also reportedly dumped into streams and harbours. The report warned that fish stocks were in danger of being deleted if steps were not taken to supply fishways at the mills. Also, brush weirs in some parts of the Bay were said to be catching too many young Shad.(Allardyce, 1994).

Local fishermen using intertidal seine fish weirs along the
Bay of Fundy coast (ca. 1905)
(Photo: Claude Phaneuf/Fundy NP Collection)

In addition to large dams at the mouths of major rivers, smaller roll and driving dams were being constructed along many brooks. Rolls dams were located on rough spots on the streams and were designed to prevent logs from jamming on their journey downstream. Driving dams were designed to hold back the spring rush of water until it was needed (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

ca. 1851 - A roadway was constructed from Herring Cove into the interior through Bennett Lake to link up with the Shepody Road. Newly designated roadside lots began to be filled by settlers. In the following years a more elaborate road network developed (Allardyce, 1994).

1855 - Alma Parish was designated an administrative unit within Albert County. The economy of Alma was said to focus almost exclusively on the basic resources of fish and timber (Allardyce, 1994).

1860s - The Timber Wolf was extirpated from New Brunswick (Woodley, 1985).

ca. 1860 - A government official who toured the Fundy coast warned about the threat to the fishery from dam obstructions and accumulations of sawdust and mill refuse. Although urgent action was recommended to prevent the decline of species such as Atlantic Salmon, nothing was reported to have been done and the region’s mills continued to operate at ever increasing scales. As a consequence, wood scraps, waste and debris continued to accumulate along the coast (Allardyce, 1994).

ca. 1870 - The Vernons built a new and more efficient mill at Point Wolfe. They then sold the operation to a Saint John company. The new mill employed 48 men and operated around the clock during the height of the season. Cutting operations extended almost 5 km up the Point Wolfe River. During the winter, lumber teams piled logs on the stream beds or on the brows of the riverbank. When the spring floods arrived the logs were driven down the river to the holding pond above the mill (Allardyce, 1994).

A river log drive (Photo: Fundy NP Collection)

The scales of such log driving activities on major streams such as the Point Wolfe River and the Salmon River are thought to have caused great environmental damage. River beds were scoured, river banks were eroded and large woody debris was removed. The scouring action, brought about by the manipulation of river flows to create flood waters, probably destroyed fish spawning grounds, removed any established invertebrate communities and displaced resident fish species. Structures built to straighten rivers to increase flows resulted in rivers which were shallower, wider and warmer in summer and colder in the winter. Further negative impacts on the waters came from accumulations of organic debris such as sawdust and logs (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1872 - A large mill (the Talbot Mill) was constructed on the Salmon River 0.4 km up from the bay. This marked the beginning of the Alma Lumber and Shipbuilding Company. The mill's lumber crews operated throughout the Salmon River watershed and the intensity of cutting was said to have been high in some areas. The owners of the Talbot Mill acquired inland areas up to the Shepody Road. The mill soon became the main employer in the village of Alma. The village's wharfs were leased to export the mill's lumber (Allardyce, 1994).

1875 - The first White-tailed Deer was reported to be seen in the GFE area (Woodley, 1985) indicating improved habitat conditions for this species and possible declines in traditional predators.

1877 - A surveyor's note indicated that the owners of the Talbot mill were acquiring lands in the Upper Salmon River watershed for cutting and water control. Land on the west side of the river was said to have been extensively selectively harvested with few large trees remaining (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

19th Century Caribou hunters (Photo: NB Provincial Archives)

1878 - A season was placed on the hunting of Moose, Caribou and Deer. The hunting of female Moose was banned at all times. Firearm restrictions were placed on waterfowl hunting (Fellows, 1987).

1880s - Shad stocks began to fail in the Bay (Allardyce, 1994).

1883 - Regulations were imposed by the province prohibiting the cutting of Spruce or Pine which did not meet a height requirement of 18 ft (5.5 m) and 10 inches (25.5 cm) in diameter. Permits could be obtained from a Forest Officer to cut smaller-sized timber in certain situations. Previous to this, there was little or no government regulation of cutting methods in New Brunswick (Hoyt, 1947).

1884 - The Point Wolfe mill was sold to C.M. Bostwick and Company. At this time, the mill employed 60 men and processed an average of 6 million feet of lumber a year. This represented peak production at the site. Similar logging occurred on the Salmon River at this time and at a larger scale (Allardyce, 1994). Spruce was reported to be the only type of tree processed at the Point Wolfe mill (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1885 - An act was passed to try and control the loss of timber land to forest fires. Forest fire incidences increased over the past decade with the construction of railroads through the province (Hoyt, 1947).

1886 - The federal government passed the Sawdust Act to control the disposal of sawdust and mill refuse in streams and rivers. Mill owners were warned to stop placing sawdust in streams (Allardyce, 1994).

1887 - Records from the Talbot mill reported exclusive cuts of Spruce until 1892 when both Spruce and Birch were milled (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1889 - The Point Wolfe mill was again sold.
Along the coast, three schooners were reported to be transporting lumber to Saint John and on to U.S. markets (Allardyce, 1994).
The Talbot Mill was granted an exemption from the Sawdust Act. This permitted it to continue dumping sawdust, but not mill rubbish, into the Bay. The Point Wolfe mill was granted a similar exemption in 1890 (Allardyce, 1994).
Shad were said to be disappearing from the head of the Bay of Fundy. Albert County fishermen reported taking only 25 barrels of Shad from the Bay in 1889 compared to 3,900 barrels four years previous. Concerns were raised not only over sawdust pollution but also over overfishing and the use of brush weirs (Allardyce, 1994).

1890 - Alma harbour was reported to be filled at its bottom with almost 1 m of sawdust and mill debris. The sawdust was said to mix with mud at low tide and cover fish feeding grounds. Floating logs from the mills were reported to be a menace to navigation (Allardyce, 1994).

1890-1900 - An outbreak of the Larch Sawfly killed large numbers of Tamarack in the province (Hoyt, 1947).

1891 - Census data showed the beginnings of a continuous population decline in Alma Parish. Young people were reported to be moving away from the area to more fertile parts of Canada and the U.S. Homesteads began to be abandoned first in the interior and then along the coast. Remaining homesteaders tended to cluster along the coast or along the new railway line near Sussex (Allardyce, 1994).

1891 - Some gold prospecting occurred along the Point Wolfe River but no large deposits were found (Allardyce, 1994).

1894 - The mills continued to boom in Alma and at Point Wolfe. Records from the Talbot Mill at Alma indicated it employed 180 men in the woods during the winter of 1894 and 60 at the mill and company store in the summer. Sixty horses were used in the Salmon River watershed to haul logs out of the woods.
The Talbot mill at Alma installed a fishway. No fishway was ever installed at the Point Wolfe mill (Allardyce, 1994).

1894 - The federal government revoked the exemptions to the Sawdust Act given to the mills. The owners of the mills petitioned the government to overturn its decision citing enormous financial losses to themselves and job losses to the community. A one year reprieve was granted for the two operations (Allardyce, 1994).

1895 - The one-year exemption for the mills expired but no action was taken by the government to enforce the new sawdust regulation (Allardyce, 1994).

1896 - Local fishermen continued to complain to the government over sawdust and rubbish buildup at river mouths (Allardyce, 1994).
A new dam and water mill were built at Point Wolfe. Lumbering of the Fundy NP area by this time had been extensive. It was reported that mill operators had to travel further to exploit unharvested parts of their landholdings (Allardyce, 1994).

1898 - The Talbot mill was sold to S.H. White of Sussex. Efforts by the federal government to enforce the Sawdust Act on
the new owner failed. Local mill owners continued to put political pressure on the government to grant them exemptions (Allardyce, 1994).

1900 - Westmorland County fishermen petitioned the Minister of Fisheries to protect the failing Shad fishery in the Bay of Fundy. Blame was placed on the Salmon River mills for much of the damage (Allardyce, 1994).

ca. 1900 - Lakes in the region began to be leased to private sportsmen and fishing clubs. Some lakes were stocked with game fish. A few Americans built cottages at Herring Cove (Allardyce, 1994).

1903 - Following a recommendation by a committee made up of Crown Timber licensees, the province reduced the minimum size of tree that can be harvested on Crown lands to 16 ft (4.9 m) in length and 8 inches (20.3 cm) in diameter. The government also promised to grant favourable consideration, on a case-by-case basis, for applicants who wished to cut undersized timber for pulpwood (Fellows, 1987).

The Point Wolfe sawmill (ca. 1910)(Photo: Fundy NP Collection)

Log run in the Point Wolfe mill pond. The mill owner, C.T. White
is in the foreground (May 1910)(Photo: Fundy NP Collection)

The Alma sawmill on the Upper Salmon River (ca. 1908)
(Photo: Fundy NP Collection)

1908-10 - A copper mine near Point Wolfe was closed. A pile of mine tailings remained at the entrance to the mine shaft to the present day (Watts, 1994).

1910 - A number of fishermen abandoned their weirs due to the continued buildup of sawdust and mill refuse along the coast (Allardyce, 1994). The Surveyor General complained that there was too much unauthorized cutting of undersized wood (Fellows, 1987).

1911 - An Act was passed prohibiting the export of Crown wood in an unmanufactured condition out of the country except by special permit (Fellows, 1987).

Adult Spruce Budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana)
(Photo: B. Townsend)

1913-23 - A Spruce Budworm epidemic killed large numbers of Spruce and Fir. During the 10-year period of the outbreak, 80% of the forest area of the province was affected and 80% of merchantable Fir and 20% of merchantable Spruce were killed (Hoyt, 1947).

1915 - Norway Spruce, a European species, was cultivated for the first time at a small nursery in Saint John County (Fellows, 1987).

1917 - Under new Timber Regulations, the diameter limit for Spruce was set at 12 inches (30.5 cm) at the stump (measured at 12 inches (30.5 cm) above the ground) and at 9 inches (23 cm) for Balsam Fir (Hoyt, 1947).
Following the First World War, the shipbuilding industry was restarted in Alma in anticipation of increasing demand for wooden ships. Four large ships were constructed at Alma from 1918-19, however, the industry soon closed due to the lack of market demand for wooden schooners (Allardyce, 1994).

1918 - The demand for lumber subsided and prices fell. Large amounts of lumber were stockpiled at the Alma mill in anticipation of an improvement in market prices. Market prices, however, were slow to recover (Allardyce, 1994).
The provincial Forest Fire Act was passed (Hoyt, 1947).

1918 - The Woodland Caribou was extirpated from southern New Brunswick (Keith, 1995).

1919 - Some experimental replanting of clearcut areas was undertaken in New Brunswick (Fellows, 1987).

1922 - The GFE area developed a reputation as a prime destination for big game hunting. Hunting cabins were built in the interior for visiting American sportsmen. Hotels and lodges in Alma and Wolfe Lake began to cater to increased numbers of visiting hunters (Allardyce, 1994).

1922 - The White company sold its operations to an American pulp company, Hollingsworth and Whitney. The new owners dismantled the saw mills and ended logs drives on the rivers for a number of years. The properties around Alma were held as a timber reserve and no harvesting immediately occurred.
With the closure of the mills, many people moved away from the settlements along the coast. By 1931, the population of Alma Parish fell to one-half its 1901 population (Allardyce, 1994).
The arrival of the pulp company in the area changed the way in which forests were to be harvested. The selective cutting methods of previous sawlog operators, which imposed a size limit on trees that were to be cut, were frequently abandoned. Trees of much smaller size were now harvested for pulpwood. This material was hauled to the Hollingsworth and Whitney pulp and paper mill in Bucksport, Maine.
A general trend throughout the province during the1920's was the transfer of many areas of Crown land forest reserve to a small number of pulp and paper companies (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

Abandoned farm field in Fundy National Park with apple trees
in the foreground (Photo: A. Skibicki)

1920s - Some Alma residents negotiated agreements to cut small amounts of lumber for Hollingsworth and Whitney. New, smaller mills were constructed at Alma and Point Wolfe. Portable mills began to be used in the interior as it became more and more difficult to transport logs downriver to stationary mills (Allardyce, 1994).

A portable sawmill (Photo: Fundy NP Collection)

1922 - The Spruce Budworm outbreak affected the Alma area. In the coming years most mature Balsam Fir were killed and the growth of many surviving Spruce was retarded (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1923 - Increasing tourist traffic on provincial logging roads was blamed for an increased occurrence of forest fires (Fellows, 1987).

1926 - A spark from a mill ignited a fire which destroyed much of the village of Alma. The town is eventually rebuilt (Allardyce, 1994).
Petitions were made by conservation societies, including the N.B. Fish and Game Protective Association, to establish a national park in New Brunswick. Added support to the idea was given by the Saint John Board of Trade and the New Brunswick Tourist Association (Lothian, 1976)

1928 - A national park committee was formed in Moncton (Lothian, 1976).

1928-30 - Many new and large-scale pulp and paper mills opened in the province. Large-scale hydroelectric dams were built specifically to supply power for these facilities (Fellows, 1987).

1930 - The Province of New Brunswick endorsed the idea of a national park. Six potential sites in the province, including Albert County, were examined. The list was narrowed in the coming years to sites at Mount Champlain, Lepreau and Albert County (Lothian, 1976).
American Marten were extirpated from southern New Brunswick (Bourgeois, 1995).
Moose were thought to be near extinction in the region (Woodley, 1985).

The village of Alma (ca. 1930)(Photo: Fundy NP/Alma)

1930s - The small lumber operators who worked for Hollingsworth and Whitney established their own operations at Alma and Point Wolfe. By 1939-40, logs were again being moved on the rivers. About 3 million feet of lumber per year on average were harvested, although the 1939-40 harvest approached 8 million feet. Lumber at Point Wolfe was loaded on trucks and transported to Alma where it was carried by ship to Saint John (Allardyce, 1994). The two mills mainly processed Spruce with lesser amounts of Fir and Birch (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1931 - The Great Depression. Lumber production in New Brunswick fell to one-third its 1928 level. Fuelwood demand by poor families increased and the province issued free permits to rural and urban municipalities and individuals to cut firewood on Crown Lands (Fellows, 1987).

Charlie McKinley House; an old homestead in Fundy National
Park (Photo: Fundy NP/Hastings)

1934 - Timber harvest regulations were amended. Cut permits were to be limited to the estimated annual growth of an area and a site inspection and report were required before an undersized harvest permit could be requested (Hoyt, 1947).

1936-40 - An outbreak of European Spruce Sawfly resulted in losses of Spruce (Hoyt, 1947).

1936-39 - Federal entomologists released millions of parasites annually in an attempt to control the European Spruce Sawfly (Fellows, 1987).

1937 - The Crown Lands Act required a management plan to be submitted by licensees who wished to cut timber smaller than the minimum diameters specified in the provincial Timber Regulations. The management plan was required to be accompanied by a timber supply inventory, harvest schedule and description of the size, age and growth conditions of the timber. Provincial staff shortages limited application and enforcement of these requirements during the first few years and cutting practices continued as in the past (Hoyt, 1947).
The province banned moose hunting for a number of years due to decreasing populations (Fellows, 1987).

1937-47 - Yellow Birch and White Birch underwent a period of dieback. The Bronze Birch Borer was implicated as a key factor in the dieback (Hoyt, 1947; Cooper and Clay, 1994).

ca. 1940s - A potato research station was built on the upland area west of Herring Cove by the federal Department of Agriculture. The station cleared some forested land for plots for use in conducting potato breeding experiments (Lothian, 1976).

1944 -45 - The first complete aerial photographic survey was made of forest areas throughout New Brunswick. Aircraft also began to be extensively used for forest fire suppression and for aerial spraying for insect and plant pests (Hoyt, 1947).

1945 - For the first time, the pulp and paper industry in New Brunswick consumed more wood than all other forestry industries combined (Fellows, 1987).

1945 - The Balsam Woolly Aphid, was thought to have been inflicting mortality on Balsam Fir (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

post-1945 - Technological innovations were quickly introduced into forestry operations following the end of the Second World War. Bulldozers, trucks and the mechanical skidder quickly replaced horse-drawn skidders for transporting lumber out of the forest and to the mills.

An early version of a power-driven chain saw
(ca. 1946)
(Photo: Province of New Brunswick)

Following World War II, increased use was made of trucks and other mechanized vehicles to haul pulpwood logs to processing mills
(Photo: Province of New Brunswick)

Many new logging roads were built to access interior forest lands. Log driving was rapidly replaced by trucking as the preferred means of getting lumber to the mills. The power-driven chain saw also made its first appearance (Fellows, 1987).

1946 - Management plan requirements for Crown Land licensees began to be enforced following increases in provincial forestry staff. Management plans were required to be submitted by licensees for 10 year periods. Harvesting was restricted to the allowable annual cut (AAC) (Fellows, 1987).

1947 - The area to the west of Alma was selected for the establishment of Fundy National Park; the first national park in New Brunswick (Lothian, 1976). Continued operation of the potato research station was permitted within the Park for another 10 years (Lothian, 1976). Lumber operators in the Park area were notified to stop their harvesting activities (Cooper & Clay, 1994).

1947 - 160 Moose were estimated to be within the boundary of Fundy NP (Woodley, 1985).

1948 - Fundy National Park was created. The Provincial government expropriated the land holdings of about 50 families and re-established them outside of the Park (Lothian, 1976). Many of these people relocated within the village of Alma (Cooper and Clay, 1994). Many old buildings were removed or demolished. About 15,300 m3 of top soil were brought in and extensive landscaping was undertaken in some areas. Highway 14, a winding gravel road, was widened, paved and renamed Highway 114 (Lothian, 1976).
The last log drive on the Point Wolfe River was made in the spring. The Point Wolfe mill was closed after the summer (Copper and Clay, 1994) and the site was turned into a picnic ground (Lothian, 1976).
While logging was halted within the Park, timber extraction continued in the areas around it. The lands to the west of the Park were particularly affected. In the coming years, the logging was heavily pulpwood-oriented with clearcutting being the principal method of harvest (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1949 - The federal government passed the Canada Forestry Act which allowed it to enter into agreements with Provincial Governments to share the costs of forest-fire protection, forest inventories, and forest regeneration (Fellows, 1987).

1949 - Several administrative and service buildings were erected at Fundy NP. Recreational developments included a nine-hole golf course, an outdoor swimming pool, tennis courts, a bowling green, and a public campground overlooking Alma Village. Existing roads and trails were improved. Fourteen housekeeping cottages were also erected and eventually leased to a concessionaire (Lothian, 1976).
Evidence for Eastern Cougar was first reported in the Park. Between 1949 and 1977, 27 additional sightings and two sets of tracks were reported. The Eastern Cougar is currently listed as endangered in Canada (Woodley, 1985).

Recreational facilities development at Fundy NP. This is a view of the
Park's nine-hole golf course from the first tee
(Photo: B. Townsend)

1950 - Fundy National Park was opened to the public. Nearly 63,000 people visited the Park in its first year. Tourists arrived from Canada and the eastern U.S. An additional 15 housekeeping cabins were erected within the Park and leased out (Lothian, 1976).
Raccoon numbers began to increase in the Park from feeding and access to visitor garbage (Woodley, 1985).

1951 - The area of the potato research station was extended to 10 ha. (Lothian, 1976). Overbrowsing by Moose was evident in some parts of the Park. A cull program was proposed (Woodley, 1985).

1952 - The mill at Alma was destroyed by fire and not replaced. In the next few years, with the removal of the mill's dam in 1953, Atlantic Salmon numbers on the Salmon River increased (Lothian, 1976). Lumbering on the Upper Salmon River ended (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1952 - Annual visitation to Fundy NP exceeded 100,000 (Lothian, 1976).

1952-62 - Another Spruce Budworm outbreak occurred in the province. For the first time, the DNR undertook large-scale aerial spraying of infested areas with DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane) (Fellows, 1987).

1953 - An opening was constructed in the dam at the mouth of the Point Wolfe River to encourage Atlantic Salmon to move upstream. However, little improvement was noticed in fishing in the river. The dam was again closed and hatches were put in to enable Salmon to travel upstream at high tide (Lothian, 1976).

1954 - The synthetic herbicide 2,4,5-T was used for the first time to control unwanted growth on cut-over lands (Fellows, 1987).

1955 - Many logging roads were constructed by the province under the federal/provincial cost-sharing agreement and also by private forestry companies on their freeholds (Fellows, 1987).

1955 - A cull program removed nine Moose from within the Park (Woodley, 1985).

1957 - The New Brunswick Forest Development Commission recommended charging licensees for the natural productivity of their land while allowing them to make free use of whatever additional forest production they could achieve through intensive silviculture. The Commission also recommended that woodlot owners become better organized and that statistics on timber production on private lands in the province be gathered (Fellows, 1987).

1958 - To meet the increasing demand by Fundy NP visitors for accommodations, the federal government constructed a 20-unit motel and a 24-cabin development on the top of Hastings Hill. Operations of these units were leased out in 1959 (Lothian, 1976).
The Park’s White-tailed Deer population was estimated at 350 (Woodley, 1985).
The potato research facility was allowed to continue operations within the Park. Its size was increased by an additional 6 ha. and new administration and storage buildings were constructed over the coming years (Lothian, 1976). The station featured a disinfection pit where potatoes and plant materials were dumped and treated with CuSO4 powder. The higher than normal copper concentrations at the pit prevented vegetation from regrowing (Watts, 1994).
More than 800,000 acres (323,800 ha.) in the province were sprayed this year with DDT. Dutch Elm disease was first detected in New Brunswick and spread rapidly (Fellows, 1987).

1959 - Small campgrounds were opened at Wolfe Lake, Bennett Lake and Herring Cove. The first nature trails were opened along Kinnie Brook and Dickson Brook Falls (Lothian, 1976).
A severe winter decimated the Park’s deer population (Woodley, 1985).

1960 - More than 2.5 million acres (1,011,700 ha.) of New Brunswick were sprayed with DDT to control the Spruce Budworm. The first experiments in the use of the bacterial insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) were conducted (Fellows, 1987).
Annual visitation to the Park reached 200,000 (Lothian, 1976).

Aerial spraying of insecticide on forests affected with
Spruce Budworm (1963)
(Photo: Province of New Brunswick)

1960-61 - 100-150 Moose died within Fundy NP due to a severe winter (Woodley, 1985).

1962 - The Park’s deer population was estimated at 300 (Woodley, 1985).

1963 - The federal government initiated the Canada Land Inventory (CLI) which was to be used to classify most of the developed regions of the country as to the capabilities of the land for agriculture, forestry, recreation, waterfowl habitat and game habitat (Fellows, 1987).
The province established the Royal Commission on Primary Forest Products to investigate the present and probable supply of lumber, the demand for forest products, and how forest products are distributed and marketed. In the coming years the province paid more attention to setting up woodlot-owner organizations, marketing their products and providing technical help (Fellows, 1987).

mid-1960s - The Private Wood Producers Association was formed to achieve better pulpwood prices for small private woodlot owners and operators. This organization eventually evolved into the Southern New Brunswick Woodlot Owners Cooperative and the SNB Forest Products Marketing Board (SNB Forest Products Marketing Board, 1993).

1965 - 312 Atlantic Salmon are counted in the Upper Salmon River. The number increased to over 600 by the fall of 1966 (Hunter and Associates, 1982; Jones and Clay, 1995).

1966 - Spruce Budworm was noticed in the Park (Clay, 1994). DDT was applied in areas outside the park to control the insect’s spread. Application of this insecticide affected many small birds which fed on DDT-contaminated budworms. As well, birds of prey experienced reduced reproductive success from concentrations of the chemical in their bodies (Barr, 1986).

Construction began on a causeway and fishway on the Petitcodiac River near Moncton where the river entered into the Bay of Fundy (Jones and Clay, 1995). The causeway prevented anadromous fish from accessing spawning areas further upstream. In later years, this structure was cited as a possible cause for the decline of the Petitcodiac stock of Atlantic Salmon (Clay, this report).

1967 - Increased demand for campgrounds resulted in the development and opening of a new camping area at Chignecto within Fundy NP. Stocking of the upper reaches of the Point Wolfe River and Upper Salmon Rivers was undertaken in an effort to re-establish Salmon populations (Lothian, 1976).
A small addition was made to the area of Fundy NP. Two small properties to the northwest of the Park were purchased by the federal government to prevent what was felt to be undesirable development along the Park’s boundary (Lothian, 1976).
Stocking of Rainbow Trout (an introduced species) in Fundy NP lakes ends (Keith, 1995).

Fish stocking in Bennett Lake, Fundy NP, during the 1970s
(Photo: M. Burzynski)

late 1960s - Permanent sample plots designed to study forest growth began to be set up in the province by the DNR. As well, an experimental area was set up by the DNR, the University of New Brunswick, the Department of the Environment and several federal agencies, to study timber harvesting effects on the environment, particularly the hydrologic cycle (Fellows, 1987).

ca. 1968 - Another Spruce Budworm outbreak began in the GFE. During the year, moderate to severe defoliation was reported along the Fundy coast (Clay, 1994). By 1971, 7% mortality of conifers was observed. By the late 1970's, 80% of the Balsam Fir in Fundy NP had died (Cooper and Clay, 1994).

1968 - DDT was used for the last time in aerial spraying operations in New Brunswick (Fellows, 1987).

1969 - Severely infected Crown land areas to the northwest of Fundy NP were aerial sprayed with fenitrothion to control the Spruce Budworm (Dept. of Natural Resources, 1970).
An additional campground was developed at Wolfe Lake in Fundy NP (Lothian, 1976).

1970 - Public Hearings were held on provisional master plans for Fundy NP. One of the recommendations was to have the potato research station removed from the Park (Lothian, 1976).

ca.1970 - The market demand for wood-related products grew. In New Brunswick, many established wood processing plants expanded and many new operations opened. The necessary labour needed to conduct timber harvesting became scarce, facilitating rapid mechanization of logging operations (Fellows, 1987).

1970s - Silvicultural treatment of harvest blocks in the province became much more common. Many clearcut areas were reforested with plantations of single species such as Black Spruce (Forestry Canada - Maritime Region, 1991).
Extensive areas in and around Fundy NP were aerial sprayed with fenitrothion to control the Spruce Budworm (DNRE, 1975).
The Coyote extended its range into the GFE. Today it is a common species in the area (Keith, 1995).

1972 - Two parcels of land bordering the Old Shepody Road and totaling 53 ha. were acquired by the Park from J.D. Irving Limited (Lothian, 1976).

1974 - The potato station was closed and the facilities moved to Benton, N.B. (Lothian, 1976). Over the coming years, the field area of the station began to regenerate in typical old-field vegetative growth (Watts, 1994).

1975-76 - The first comprehensive mammal surveys were undertaken in Fundy NP by the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS)(Woodley, 1985).

1976 - A biophysical report prepared for Fundy National Park and a proposed western extension indicated that nearly 15% of this western area had been clearcut since 1958. Most of the clearcutting had occurred since 1970 (Hirvonen and Madill (1978). By 1994, almost all of the plateau areas had been clearcut (Copper and Clay, 1994). Logging around the Park was heavily pulpwood oriented and clearcutting was the principal method of harvesting.

J.D. Irving Ltd. rigs operating west of FundyNP
(Photo: Fundy NP)

Clearcut harvesting to the east of Fundy NP
(Photo: A. Skibicki)

A powerful winter storm caused extensive tree blow-downs in Fundy NP (Woodley, 1985).
The province established a Task Force to advise on Spruce Budworm control alternatives. This was the 24th year of almost uninterrupted aerial spraying by the province to control the insect. The Task Force concluded that there was no operationally available alternative to the use of chemical insecticides but that the province should carefully choose which areas to spray in order to achieve maximum benefits and smaller target areas (Fellows, 1987).

1977 - Three Lynx were reported within Fundy NP by Park Wardens (Woodley, 1985).

1977 - The province adopted a policy which excluded land within one mile (1.6 km) of year-round human habitation from the Spruce Budworm aerial spray protection program. This in effect excluded the bulk of small freehold ownership from aerial insecticide spraying (Fellows, 1987).

1978 - An experimental fish farm was established in the Passamaquoddy Bay area of the Bay of Fundy at the southwestern end of New Brunswick (Percy, 1996)

1980 - A new forest inventory was completed by the province. The inventory showed increasing loss of merchantable Spruce and Balsam Fir to Spruce Budworm and an increase in the proportion of hardwoods in the forest (Fellows, 1987).

1981 - The new Crown Lands and Forests Act placed responsibility for implementation of forest-management policies on those who entered into Forest Management Agreements (FMAs) with the province. FMA holders were required to produce 5-year forest operating plans and 25-year industrial plans which provided information on the licensee's industrial plant and its products (Fellows, 1987).
A Resource Management Plan for Fundy NP was approved. One part of the plan was designed to re-establish access up the Point Wolfe River for anadromous fish (Woodley, 1985).

1982 - Peregrine Falcons were re-introduced to Fundy NP. Between 1982-1988, 55 falcons were released from two sites in the Park. In recent years, some of the birds have been observed breeding naturally along the coast (Keith, 1995).
A computerized Geographic Information System (GIS) to keep track of changes in the physical environment was set up at the DNRE (Fellows, 1987).
First year of four-year stocking and restoration program for Atlantic Salmon in the Point Wolfe River (Jones and Clay, 1995).

1983 - Coyotes were reported to be widespread and common in the Park (Woodley, 1985).

1984 - After a slow start, fish farming activities increased in the southwestern parts of the Bay of Fundy. Fish farm numbers multiplied by nearly 14 times between 1984 and 1988. By 1994, 66 fish farms were established in this area producing more than 15,000 tonnes of fish per year. The dominant fish raised was Atlantic Salmon but increasing numbers of Sea Trout and Scallops were reared by these operations (Percy, 1996).

1984 - American Marten were re-introduced to Fundy NP. From 1984 to 1991, 50 marten were taken from the northern part of the province and released within the Park (Bourgeois, 1995).

1985 - The Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (CCFM) was established. The Council consisted of ten provincial ministers responsible for forestry matters and Canada's Minister of State for Forestry (Fellows, 1987).
The dam on the Point Wolfe River was removed allowing for free passage of salmon (Jones and Clay, 1995).

1990s - Many fish species declined in numbers or changed their distributions in the Bay of Fundy. On the mudflats of the upper bay, bottom dwelling and planktonic animals, such as Corophium volutator, showed large declines in numbers. Pressures on aquatic wildlife populations were attributed to a number of causes including sewage contamination, excessive sedimentation, increases in toxic chemical loads, highly mechanized and destructive harvesting methods and the presence of causeways and dams (Percy, 1996).

1991 - The Greater Fundy Ecosystem (GFE) Project was initiated.

1992 - The Fundy Model Forest (FMF) program was initiated. The GFE project entered into a partnership with over 20 other participants representing the forestry industry, private woodlot owners, government agencies, non-government groups, universities and others. The purpose of the FMF was to promote sustainable forestry through research and integrated decision-making.

The Province of New Brunswick set an objective to maintain no less than 10% of the coniferous forest in the province in a mature habitat condition. The objective was set after forecasts indicated that much of the mature coniferous forest habitat was in danger of being cut down in the near future. The objective was incorporated into forest management plans on Crown Lands (DNRE, 1996).

Clearcut plateaus along the Point Wolfe River west of Fundy NP
(Photo: G. Forbes)

1993 - Harvesting of Periwinkle, a small, greyish-brown snail, from the floor of the Bay of Fundy increased greatly with the introduction of more efficient, diver-operated suction harvesters. Concerns were raised over the long-term sustainability of the Periwinkle population and the effects of suction harvesters on other benthic species (Percy, 1996).

1994 - The Yellowheaded Spruce Sawfly was detected in a number of plantations west of Fundy NP (DNRE, 1995). The Sawfly is a defoliator that is associated with Spruce and presents a threat to young trees in sunny exposures such as plantations. It rarely attacks mature Spruce stands (Martineau, 1984).
The FMF partnership decided upon a case study approach to developing its sustainable management plan. An area comprising the eastern quarter of the FMF was selected as the case study area. Over the next two years, various harvesting and conservation alternatives for this area were examined by the partnership.

1995 - Membership in the FMF was extended to 28 representatives.

1996 - A specific set of forest management scenarios for the FMF case study area were set up for further analysis. By the end of the year, the impacts of the scenarios on existing harvestable wood supplies were presented to the FMF partnership. Many of the scenarios evaluated stemmed from the GFE Research Group’s development of a set of biodiversity guidelines for the case study area.

Stream monitoring in Fundy NP indicated a definite decline in the number of returning Atlantic Salmon to the Point Wolfe River and Upper Salmon River (Clay, this report).

1997 - The GFE Research Group released its “Forest Management Guidelines to Protect Native Biodiversity in the Fundy Model Forest”.
The FMF entered its second phase.

Further Reading:

Allardyce, G. 1994. The Salt and the Fir: Report on the history of the Fundy Park area. Research Notes of Fundy National Park. Alma, N.B.

Cooper, L. and D. Clay. 1994. An historical review of logging and river driving in Fundy National Park. Research Notes of Fundy National Park. No. FUN94-05. 73 pp.

Cooper, L. and D. Clay. 1997. The history of logging and river driving in Fundy National Park: Implications for ecological integrity of aquatic ecosystems. In: D. Clay (ed.). Resources of Fundy National Park: A primer of ecosystem studies. Part I. Chapter III. Pks. Can. Eco.Sci. Rev. Rept. No. 9. 63 pp.

Davis, S.A. 1991. Micmac: Peoples of the Maritimes. Four East Publications. Tantallon, N.S.

Fellows, E.S. 1987. New Brunswick’s natural resources: 150 years of stewardship. New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and Energy. n.p.p.

Hirvonen, R. and R.J. Madill. 1978. Fundy National Park, N.B., and the proposed western extension. Integrated Resource Survey. Forest Management Institute, Information Report FMR-X-105. Canadian Forestry Service, Environment Canada. Ottawa.

Jones, M.W. and D. Clay (eds.) 1995. Components of the Atlantic Salmon database. Fundy National Park: 1957-1994. Research Notes of Fundy National Park. FUN/95-13. 12 pp.

Stewart, F.L. 1989. Seasonal movements of Indians in Acadia as evidenced by historical documents and vertebrate faunal remains from archaeological sites. Man and the Northeast 38: 55-77.

Woodley, S. (ed.) 1985. Fundy National Park resource description and analysis. Resource Conservation Section, Fundy National Park. Alma, NB.

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