State of the Greater Fundy Ecosystem

GREATER FUNDY ECOSYSTEM RESEARCH PROJECT

UNB Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management

State of the Greater Fundy Ecosystem

Executive Summary

Since 1991, the Greater Fundy Ecosystem Research Group (GFERG) has been conducting intensive research aimed at understanding the state of the Greater Fundy Ecosystem (GFE). From the start, the GFE project was conceived as a research and monitoring effort that could provide the science support necessary to manage an ecologically sustainable landscape. The specific objectives of the GFE project are: 1) to identify strategies to maintain viable populations of native species within the GFE by focusing on species whose population levels are perceived to be at risk; 2) to quantify species-habitat relationships for select species so that they can be used in management decisions; 3) to examine stresses in the GFE and how they affect valued resources in the area; and, 4) to identify operational management options that will ensure the ongoing sustainability of the GFE. Past research has concentrated on measuring the impacts of forestry, tourism and related infrastructure.

The GFE’s core area is Fundy National Park (Fundy NP) which is a 207 km2 federally protected area located along the Bay of Fundy coast in southeastern New Brunswick, Canada. The exact area of the GFE is not precisely defined and is perhaps best defined by specific issue. For example, addressing the habitat needs of fish in the major rivers and streams flowing through the Park would perhaps entail defining the GFE based on watersheds.

Similarly, addressing habitat and corridor needs for keystone forest species such as Pileated Woodpecker and Northern Flying Squirrel, would necessitate defining the GFE based on forest management units or ecological land classification units. Past research work on the GFE has focused on an 1,049 km2 Intensive Study Area (ISA) surrounding the park and on the area of the Fundy Model Forest (FMF)(4,200 km2). Biophysical descriptions of these areas are provided in the introductory chapter.

History of Human Use

Many stresses on natural ecosystems in the GFE arise from intensive human activities, many of which are detailed in Chapter 2. Human beings have lived within the area of the GFE for the past 11,000 years. However, intensive human use of the area, characterized by land clearance for settlement and large-scale utilization of natural resources, did not begin until the 1830’s. By 1870 sawmills and logging operations were a common sight in the GFE, both along the Bay of Fundy coast and in areas inland. Since the 1920’s the pulp and paper industry has promoted large scale clearcutting and plantation silviculture, further changing the species makeup of area forests. Such changes in vegetation and forest structure have resulted in the expansions of populations of some species, such as White-tailed Deer, but declines or local extinctions in others (e.g. American Marten, Gray Wolf). Landscape alterations arising chiefly from forestry, but also from recreation, tourism and agriculture, have been the major cause of loss of ecological integrity in the GFE in historical times.

Disturbance Processes

Disturbance processes in the GFE are resulting in younger, early successional forests when compared to pre-settlement times. Chapter 3 presents information on both the natural and human-induced disturbance processes that affect the GFE. Spruce Budworm have historically been the main disturbance agent in the coniferous forests. The rise of the pulp and paper industry, pesticide spraying to protect Balsam Fir, and fire suppression all serve to increase the amount of mature Balsam Fir on the landscape and hence the longevity of budworm outbreaks. The apparent increase in both the intensity and frequency of budworm outbreaks means that stands of spruce may not persist beyond 39-68 years of age. Another major natural disturbance agent is fire. The importance of fire as a disturbance agent is relatively minor in the Continental Lowlands and the Fundy Coastal Ecoregions, due to the cooler, moister climate conditions, but the process assumes a more significant role for ecoregions further inland. Wind disturbance is probably a more important stand-replacing disturbance in the GFE than in the rest of southern New Brunswick. Small patch and individual tree blowdowns that create small gaps of various sizes are the most frequent type of disturbance. The major human disturbance process is forest harvest. While this has traditionally been concentrated in coniferous communities, there have been recent and large-scale shifts to deciduous communities. Within the last 20 years, about 30% of the entire ecosystem has been harvested or otherwise disturbed for forestry roads or other harvesting-associated features. This disturbance rate is equivalent to a 66-year cycle of disturbance. Historically, the overall disturbance cycle in the ecosystem would have been 4-5 times longer.

Changes in Species Richness

Species extinction and creation is a natural process. However, the rates of extinction today arise from human activity and are much greater than natural rates. Research connected with this report has identified a significantly higher number of native species that have been lost in the GFE than previously reported (see Chapter 3). We now suspect that much ecological damage was done to the major rivers running through the Park by log-driving activities during the 1800’s and early 1900’s. More recent losses in aquatic communities have included the Dwarf Wedge Mussel and three species of anadromous fish which no longer spawn in Fundy NP’s rivers. The most recent loss has been the Atlantic Salmon, which has seen drastic declines in the entire upper Bay of Fundy. The Northern Leopard Frog has not been recorded in Fundy NP in the last 10 years and is now considered extirpated. More detailed information on aquatic ecosystem conditions can be found in Chapter 6. On the terrestrial side, a list has been compiled of 20 plant species that have not been recorded in the GFE since 1960 and are thought to be extirpated. In total the GFE has recorded losses of 14 species of vertebrates, one invertebrate and 20 plants. Together, these losses indicate a serious and ongoing decline in the ecological integrity of the ecosystem.

At the same time that some species have declined or disappeared from the GFE, other species have arrived (see Chapter 3). In total, 153 known exotic species have been recorded, including three mammals, three breeding birds, 132 vascular plants and 15 Lepidoptera. This comprises 17.5% of the total known species in these groups. The Coyote and White-tailed Deer are two exotic species which have become important keystone species. There are currently no serious problems with the 132 exotic species of vascular plants, most of which are found in areas of human disturbance, including plantations. Exotics which act as pathogens (e.g. Dutch Elm Disease) are having major impacts. Both American Elm and American Beech populations have been seriously reduced by these agents. In summary, exotic species are well established in the GFE in all communities and at all trophic levels. Exotic species, especially the pathogens, have already restructured entire forest communities by effectively eliminating key canopy tree species. Because exotic species exist in high numbers over a range of taxa, they have the potential to make dramatic changes in the future.

The combined average body weight of native mammal species in the 1800’s was 14.8% heavier than the species that comprise the community of mammal species today. The loss of body mass from extirpated Caribou, Wolf, Lynx, Cougar, Wolverine, and Sea Mink would constitute a decrease of 26.3% if not for the arrival of Deer and Coyote and the reintroduction of Fisher and Marten. The decline in average body weight is an indication of a loss of ecological integrity in the GFE. A stressed ecosystem tends to be unable to support large-bodied organisms and this trend is clear for Fundy. This decline corresponds to a period of intensive use of the landscape for forestry, agriculture, hunting and trapping.

The overall reproduction rates of several key indicator species such as Ovenbird, Common Loon and others, do not appear to be impaired. Changes in populations appear to be the result of changes in mortality rates and loss of habitat.

Some populations in the GFE are unlikely to persist in the future because of stresses operating in the ecosystem. The probability of the re-introduced American Marten persisting in the area is low. Populations of Flying Squirrels also appear to be tenuous due to loss of older-aged forests and forest fragmentation. Population viability analyses have only been conducted for two species in the GFE. However, the fact that these two species of mammals have a low probability of persisting is cause for concern. Both species are habitat specialists in habitats that are being altered to an extent that will likely result in their extirpations.

Fragmentation

Chapter 5 demonstrates that forest fragmentation by human development in the GFE is quite high. For example, road densities in the GFE are at 0.9 km/km2. Evidence from other regions suggests that a road density of 0.58 km/km2 is associated with losses in ecological integrity. Some species are more sensitive to forest fragmentation than others. Sensitive species such as the Red-backed Salamander and the Flying Squirrel appear to be affected by this process. The current level of fragmentation is concluded to be affecting the ecological integrity of the area.

Forestry Practices

Forestry activities associated with harvesting and management can affect biodiversity in many ways. Many of these effects are detailed in Chapter 4. Clearcutting, thinning or herbicide treatments immediately disturb existing vegetation. After a clearcut, tree-sized plants no longer dominate the site, thus allowing numerous opportunistic species of ruderal plants (and animals) to dominate the initial stages of succession. These areas are eventually recolonized by plant species such as Bunchberry, Shield Fern or Lungwort which are more tolerant of the shade and moisture conditions that occur beneath a closed forest canopy. If clearcut areas are replanted with conifers rather than allowed to re-grow naturally, a different forest structure develops. Maturing plantations, because of their dense canopy cover which does not allow for much of an understory, are frequently not recolonized by these tolerant species and are generally depauperate in species composition and diversity.

As plantations progressively come to dominate the landscape, protected areas such as Fundy NP, may become the only large-sized refugia for bird species that require cavity trees, snags and coarse woody debris as critical elements of their habitat. Plantation management may also reduce the habitats necessary to support viable populations of Marten and Fisher which require mature, conifer-dominated forests. Black Bears, which require large-dimension woody debris for use in denning, may also be reduced in the area by the prevalence of plantations. Bears may also be affected by increased hunting pressures brought about by hunter access to interior forests through increasingly extensive logging road networks.

Old-growth forest, regardless of community type, is becoming increasingly rare in the GFE. Only about 4% of coniferous stands in the GFE are classified as “overmature”. This is much lower than the historical average of about 30%. Older aged communities are critical for the conservation of biological diversity because it is only in old age that structural complexity can fully emerge. This complexity is characterized by substantial amounts of coarse woody debris, both standing and in various states of decay on the ground; multiple canopy layers; uneven age structure; and gaps in the forest canopy (if the stand-type is gap replacing). This complexity is the key to the creation of micro-habitat types that can often by unique to old growth stands. These habitats in turn give rise to specialized species assemblages. While only some old-growth communities harbour high species richness, almost all possess unique and dependent species.

If industrial forestry is to be conducted on a landscape in a manner which is ecologically sustainable, it must meet the following criteria: (1) the productivity of the primary resource (i.e. commercial forest) must be maintained, so that economic commodities and livelihoods can be sustained over the longer term; (2) the productivity of secondary economic resources must also be maintained, including hunted deer, hare, upland gamebirds, and sportfish, and non-consumptive recreational opportunities; and, (3) all elements of indigenous biodiversity must be maintained, in at least minimum sustainable populations (for species) and at least minimum sustainable areas (for ecosystems, such as old-growth forest).

Forest management plans for the GFE and Fundy Model Forest are largely accommodating the needs of elements (1) and (2) above, but some aspects relevant to maintaining indigenous biodiversity are at risk. Further damage can be avoided, and existing degradation can be substantially repaired, by implementing the guidelines for forest management outlined in Chapter 7. Particular attention should be paid to rapidly completing a network of protected areas, modifying site-management plans to accommodate critical habitat needs of certain species and taking measures to protect aquatic habitats.

Aquatic Ecosytems

Fisheries resources have continued to decline in the GFE (see Chapter 6). Although the aquatic systems within Fundy NP and other areas of the GFE appear to be near pristine, they have been severely affected by historic forest practices, such as log driving and damming, and to a lesser extent by present forest harvest activities (e.g. loss of Ca and K ions from watersheds). Brook Trout and American Eel appear to be the only fish remaining in the Point Wolfe River and the Upper Salmon River from pre-European settlement. The Atlantic Salmon has either been re-introduced (Point Wolfe River) or has immigrated (Upper Salmon River) to the system after extirpation. American Shad, Gaspereau and American Smelt have been extirpated. Other less known minnow species are found in neighbouring watersheds but not in those of Fundy NP. Thus, at least 66% and possibly 80% of fish species have been extirpated from Park and surrounding lands.

Amphibians have not suffered as critically from human-caused stresses as much as fish, probably due to their mobility and their reduced dependence on the aquatic environment. A number of studies of amphibians in Fundy NP will lead eventually to an integrated amphibian monitoring program within the GFE that may identify long-term risk of loss of forest and wetland integrity.

Some impacts on aquatic environments from forestry activities are unavoidable and with appropriate mitigative measures, including watershed-scale management, can be tolerated. It is vital that the cumulative impacts of any development within a watershed be documented.

Forest Management Guidelines to Protect Native Biodiversity

Concerns over the impact of present and future forestry activities on biodiversity in the GFE and emerging knowledge about area ecosystems, motivated the GFERG to develop and submit a series of biodiversity management guidelines. These were submitted to the Fundy Model Forest partnership for use in planning for the sustainable and wise harvest of forested lands (see Chapter 7).

The guidelines took a combined coarse-filter and fine-filter approach to conserving native biodiversity. The coarse-filter approach allows for planning of larger scale arrangements of communities, including their composition, size, adjacency and age class distributions. The needs of the vast majority of native species may be accommodated by this type of approach. To ensure that no species or stand level considerations were missed by the coarse-filter approach, a fine-filter approach was also taken. The fine-filter approach addressed the specific requirements of species or species groups that are likely to become vulnerable given the significant stand- and landscape-level changes taking place in the forest.

The coarse-filter or management planning level guidelines recommended harvesting practices which: i) duplicated the types of disturbance regimes affecting particular areas, ii) maintained operational patch size ranges of between 375-500 ha., iii) maintained connectivity corridors of certain dimensions, iv) maintained stream side buffers, v) maintained a minimum 12% in each fire-origin stand replacing community type (except regenerating and non-forest communities) in a mature-overmature age class (with 4% in the overmature age class), vi) maintained a minimum 17% of Red Spruce dominated stands in a mature-overmature state, vii) maintained a minimum 30% of gap-replacing communities in a mature-overmature state, viii) promote plantation structures which comprise of native species, meet certain maturity windows, meet guidelines for coarse woody debris, have at least 5% of other species in their makeup and do not comprise more than 5% of the total area of an ecodistrict, and ix) promote a network of protected areas to protect rare, unique and representative species and features.

The fine-filter or operational level guidelines recommend harvesting practices which: i) retain set amounts of coarse woody debris, ii) retain certain numbers of snags, iii) involve improvements to existing and planned plantations, iv) respect habitat needs for threatened species, v) retain uncommon or rare tree species, and vi) temporarily close some existing roads and limit new road construction in order to meet a target road density of less than 0.58 km/km2.

Summary

Research summarized in this report and from an earlier assessment in 1993 (see Chapter 8), demonstrate a loss of ecological integrity in the GFE. More importantly, they show a trend towards continued loss of ecological integrity as land use pressures intensify. Some ecosystem impacts are dramatic. The rivers have only a few of their native fish species remaining, older-aged forest communities are dramatically reduced and the viability of many sensitive species is doubtful. The remaining forest communities are highly fragmented by forest roads, clearcuts and plantations. Species loss appears to be ongoing with 14 species of vertebrates, one invertebrate and 20 plants having been recorded as lost up to the present day. There has been widespread change in forest community structure and many community types have been reduced in extent. The current primary stressor in the ecosystem is forest harvest, although land-clearing for agriculture and hunting and trapping have been significant stresses in the past. The level of ecological impact is surprising, given that the GFE area has had and continues to have a relatively low population density and functions primarily as a “harvested hinterland”.

The GFERG has attempted to provide a solution to forest managers so that ecological integrity can be maintained and enhanced. The “Forest Management Guidelines to Conserve Native Biodiversity in the Fundy Model Forest” (see Chapter 7) suggest ways and means to manage a forest landscape on an ecologically sustainable basis. We conclude that the landscape is currently not being managed on an ecologically sustainable basis. We submit the Forest Management guidelines as our best professional advice for sustainable management. Whether or not the cost is acceptable will have to be determined by a larger public.

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