GREATER FUNDY ECOSYSTEM RESEARCH PROJECT

UNB Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management

State of the Greater Fundy Ecosystem

State of the Greater Fundy Ecosystem:
Introduction

Stephen Woodley
Natural Resources Branch - Parks Canada
Hull, Quebec K1A 0H3

Fundy National Park (Fundy NP) is located in the southeastern part of New Brunswick (Figure 1.1) and has become an island of relative wilderness surrounded by intensive forest harvesting and large-scale plantation silviculture. The potential impacts of these land uses on vegetation, watersheds, and wildlife in the Park and the surrounding landscape are not well understood. Within the next 20 years, much of the remaining accessible commercial forest stands in the Park region will be harvested. In total this will see about 60% of the surrounding area intensively managed for forestry. The remainder of the lands will be isolated pockets of non-productive forest lands, vegetation growing on slopes that are too steep to harvest, or special areas set aside and managed for wildlife or other values. Currently, the large majority of all lands surrounding Fundy National Park are either owned by the Crown and leased for forestry, or owned by private individuals or forestry companies.

Since 1991, the Greater Fundy Ecosystem Research Group (GFERG) has conducted an intensive program of research aimed at understanding the state of the Greater Fundy Ecosystem (GFE). The GFERG has concentrated on measuring the impacts of forestry, tourism and related infrastructure.

This report summarizes the results of the GFERG’s work and presents the state of Fundy NP’s greater ecosystem. It is the first installment in a long-term and large-scale approach to management. We believe that such ecosystem-based approaches are necessary to address the complex problems encountered in living sustainably.

Figure 1.1.
The location of Fundy National Park in
New Brunswick, Canada.

ORGANIZATION OF THIS REPORT

The introductory chapter describes the origins, components, goals and objectives of the GFE Research Project and provides a brief physical description of the GFE area.

Chapter 2 outlines the historic and present scope of human land use in the GFE. Particular attention is given to what have been the three major human activities in the area: forestry, agriculture, and recreation/tourism.

Chapter 3 addresses ecological change in the GFE including the possible or potential composition of the forest based on enduring landscape features (e.g. soil types, climate and geology) and historical land survey records. This chapter outlines the range of natural disturbances (e.g. insect infestations, wildfire, winds, gap disturbances) which have served to shape and change the GFE’s forests from this potential composition. A description is also given of changes in species richness in the GFE as a result of the introduction of exotics, diseases, and land development.

An overview of forestry and its impacts on biodiversity is given in Chapter 4. Forestry and its varying effects on different types of vegetation, birds, mammals, amphibians, freshwater habitats, and forest communities are described. References are made to a number of case studies conducted in the GFE over the last five years to understand the effects of this land use on native biodiversity.

Chapter 5 discusses the state of terrestrial ecosystems in the GFE including the population viability of a number of species (e.g. Pileated Woodpecker, American Marten, Northern Flying Squirrel and others) that have been selected as indicators of forest ecosystem health. The chapter also discusses changes in forest composition and structure brought about by fragmentation of the landscape and increasing intensification in land use.

The state of aquatic ecosystems in the GFE is discussed in Chapter 6. Studies focusing on such past processes as log driving, which scoured major rivers and streams, are described. Work being undertaken to understand many aquatic indicator species, such as Atlantic Salmon, Common Loon and various amphibians, is outlined.

Chapter 7 presents the set of guidelines that have been developed by the GFERG as a forestry planning and management tool to protect native biodiversity in the Fundy Model Forest area.

Chapter 8 presents a report summary and some recommendations.

THE GREATER FUNDY ECOSYSTEM (GFE) RESEARCH PROJECT

The Greater Fundy Ecosystem project was established in June 1991. From the beginning, the project was conceived as a research and monitoring effort to provide the science support necessary to manage an ecologically sustainable landscape. This early focus on research was essential in order to bring all the parties active in the GFE area together under a common, non-threatening agenda. The project was always conceived as being multi-disciplinary, with representative members from industry, government and academia. A goal of the project is to be inclusive, and not to be interpreted as aligned with the aspirations or interests of a particular group or agency.

The GFE project is run on an ad hoc basis, without a formal constitution. Decisions are reached by way of consensus, and management is orchestrated by a chairperson and management committee. An office for organization and administration of the project was established in 1993, in the Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management at the University of New Brunswick (UNB) in Fredericton. Funding for the office and a project coordinator come from Parks Canada and UNB. Research funds come from a variety of sources and granting agencies.

The GFE project was an instrumental partner in applying for, and receiving, a “Model Forest grant” from the Government of Canada in 1992. The Model Forest program is a large national and international effort by Canada to promote research and demonstrate sustainable forestry. The attainment of a Model Forest grant led the GFE project into an alliance with over 20 other groups to form the Fundy Model Forest (FMF) partnership. The other groups included forest companies, private woodlot owners, federal and provincial government agencies, universities, and non-government agencies such as environmental groups and nature clubs.

The area of the Fundy Model Forest extends north and west of Fundy NP to encompass about 4,200 km2 (Figures 1.2 and 1.3).The population of the FMF is estimated to be about 35,000 (Kilpatrick and Runyon, 1994).

Figure 1.2. The Fundy Model Forest

Figure 1.2. Location of Fundy National Park (Fundy NP), the Intensive Study Area (ISA)
and the Fundy Model Forest (FMF) in southern New Brunswick,

The ecological research agenda developed for the GFE project was adopted by the Fundy Model Forest. The Fundy Model Forest now acts as a key sponsor for research in the GFE and will use the results to develop a larger management plan, expected by 1998.

Research Agenda

The GFE research agenda is based upon: 1) a fundamental need to first characterize the ecosystem; 2) a need to develop a stress-response framework that accounts for specific stressors on the landscape, such as stand conversion or forestry roads, so that they can be mitigated or their impacts avoided; and, 3) a need to design a research program that accounts for the inherent hierarchical nature of ecosystems.

A consensus framework was used to design a research agenda for the GFE during a series of workshops. The basic elements of the agenda are given below.

Components and Dynamics of the Greater Fundy Ecosystem

Planning for any ecosystem must begin with a basic understanding of its components and dynamics. Adequate data currently exist to characterize certain parts of the GFE. For example, Fundy NP has information on vegetation and bird-habitat relationships. Outside of the Park, the Province of New Brunswick maintains a data base which it uses to manage timber resources. In other cases, new data are either being collected or need to be collected at a finer resolution. In all cases, data characterizing the GFE were seen as needing to be maintained on a common up-datable data base.

It was agreed that the following information is needed to characterize the GFE:

a) Description of enduring features such as climate, geology, soils and drainage.

b) Description and understanding of past and future landscapes and the dynamics of change, at both the community and landscape levels.

c) At a community level, chronosequences of both natural and human origin should be determined. This could be done for forest communities, including plantations, thinned stands, and budworm-origin stands as well as non-forest communities such as streams. The eventual purpose of understanding community and landscape dynamics must be to enable us to forecast changes, both in time and space.

Research on Mitigating and Avoiding Stresses

In some cases, research needs to be conducted on specific mitigation and avoidance techniques required to ensure that forest management, tourism, and other activities on the landscape are compatible with a sustainable landscape and the maintenance of ecological integrity. General descriptions of such research, with some specific examples, are as follows:

a) Buffer strips around watercourses are a common mitigation for forest harvesting now used on the landscape. However, there are few concrete data on the best configuration of buffer strips. How can buffer strips be managed to ensure that the integrity of stream communities, including fish habitat, is protected? Questions remain on the required width of buffer strips and the types of forest management activities that might be compatible within the buffers.

b) What are the specific ecological requirements to support viable populations associated with mature or old-growth forests? These requirements need to be quantified as both structural and functional elements. In some cases, it may be possible to duplicate certain habitat needs by modifying forest harvest techniques, for example by providing cavity trees, brush piles or understorey vegetation.

c) Paleo-ecological studies may be used to reconstruct the past disturbance regime in the GFE.

d) What are the effects of different disturbance regimes on nutrient cycling? The disturbance regimes should include Spruce Budworm-affected forest, plantations, thinned stands and mature reference forest. Nutrient input and output studies should be conducted not only on stand types but also on higher order streams and their watersheds.

e) What patterns of forest harvest on the landscape are best suited to the maintenance of native biodiversity in the GFE? Because many native populations cannot be maintained in all stand types and ages, their sustainability must be considered at the landscape level.

f) What are suitable indicators of environmental quality in the GFE, including indicators relevant to ecological and resource sustainability, ecological integrity and biodiversity?

g) What are the differences in carbon storage and dynamics in natural versus silvicultural forests and streams in the GFE, and what are the implications for long term productivity and the survival of specific populations?

h) What are suitable population-habitat models for selected game and indicator species? Experiments should be conducted on the relationships between populations and habitat. For example, forestry could be conducted to manage for a range of stand types and conditions. These conditions should be specified as part of an experiment to provide habitat for selected species at risk.

i) What are the implications of increased access allowed by forestry roads on game and wildlife populations within the larger context of exploitation?

j) What are the ecological implications of edges created by intensive forestry? How deeply do edge effects penetrate into the unharvested reference forest and what are the implications for habitat quality and quantity.

The above general research agenda led to the development of more than 20 specific research projects over the last five years. The first formal presentation of the initial results of these projects was given at a workshop in the fall of 1994 (see Forbes et al., 1994). The report you are reading contains updated project status and results for this research.

Greater Fundy Ecosystem Project Objectives

The specific objectives of the GFE project are:

1. To identify strategies to maintain viable populations of native species within the GFE by focusing on species whose population levels are perceived to be at risk. Examples of such species include animals that require older aged forests (American Marten, Fisher and Sharp-shinned Hawk) or habitat specialists (cavity nesters such as Saw-whet Owls).

2. To quantify species-habitat relationships for select species in the GFE so that they can be used in management decisions.

3. To examine stresses in GFE and how they affect valued resources in the area.

4. To identify operational management options that will ensure the ongoing sustainability of the GFE.

DESCRIPTION OF THE GREATER FUNDY ECOSYSTEM

Size

The core of the GFE is a federal protected area, Fundy NP (207 km2). The exact area of the GFE does not need to be precisely defined and is perhaps best defined by specific issue. From an ecosystem perspective, the area of focus will change with the scale of the question. Clay and Deering (1996) have termed the GFE a “virtual landscape” that is not fixed in time or space but which changes with the needs of particular species or communities. For example, addressing the habitat needs of fish in the major streams flowing through the Park would perhaps entail defining the GFE based on watersheds. Similarly, addressing the habitat needs of the Common Loon nesting in the Park may involve extending the GFE into the Bay of Fundy (see for example Clay & Clay Case Study, this report). Each virtual GFE landscape may require a different stakeholder membership and expertise needed to address the GFE issue.

At present, a Geographic Information System (GIS) data base has been assembled by Parks Canada for an Intensive Study Area (ISA) of 1,049 km2 . Roughly, this area extends from the Big Salmon River in the west to Cape Enrage in the east and Elgin in the north (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4. The GFE's Intensive Study Area (ISA).

Land ownership in the ISA is 19.6% (207 km2) federal (Fundy NP), 43.6% (457 km2) provincial Crown land, 16.1% (168.9 km2) J.D. Irving Woodlands Ltd., and 20.7% (261 km2) private land (Figure 1.5). The Crown land is under a long term forestry lease, primarily for pulpwood production, to J.D. Irving Woodlands Ltd. About one-half of the private land is woodland that is also managed for pulp production (Woodley, 1994). The remaining private land is used for farming, the village of Alma, or private lots (Woodley, 1993).

Figure 1.5. Land ownership in the Intensive Study Area (ISA)

Physical Character

The GFE is characterized by the rugged northern coastline of the Bay of Fundy and the plateau-like Caledonia Highlands of southern New Brunswick. The special attributes of the area include the bold, irregular shoreline of the Bay, the coast’s sharp, nearly perpendicular cliffs, and the high variations in tides. Steep, forested river valleys are deeply incised into the plateau and are characterized by waterfalls, rapids, and steep rock walls.

The two largest rivers passing through Fundy NP and into the Bay of Fundy are the Upper Salmon River and the Point Wolfe River. Other major neighbouring streams are the Little Salmon River, Quiddy River, Goose Creek, and Goose River. The Pollett River drains northward through the Petitcodiac River and into the Bay of Fundy to the northeast of the Park (Figure 1.4).

Bay of Fundy

The Bay of Fundy separates New Brunswick from Nova Scotia and has a diverse 1,300 km long coastline composed of mudflats, saltmarshes and rocky headlands. The Bay’s high productivity and unique ecology are tied to its great variation in tides that can, at times, exceed 16 m in height (Percy, 1996). The spring tidal range off the coast of Fundy NP averages about 9 m (Hunter and Associates, 1982).

The Bay’s regular tidal turbulence stirs the waters and raises dissolved nutrients from its bottom to the surface. The presence of these nutrients allows small marine plants (phytoplankton) and small marine animals (zooplankton) to flourish. These creatures eventually support larger animals such as fish, seabirds, whales, and seals which also flourish in the Bay. Some of these species, such as the North Atlantic Right Whale, are currently listed as endangered (Percy, 1996).

The nearshore zones of the Bay represent key commercial fishing areas. Herring is the most valuable fish caught in the regions off Saint John, Deer Island, Campobello and Grand Manan although it is not extensive fished immediately off Fundy NP. Commercial fishing for anadromous and diadromous fish, such as Alewives, Shad, and Eels, has occurred at the head of Chignecto Bay, and the mouths of the Upper Salmon, Quiddy, and Little Salmon Rivers (Hunter and Associates, 1982). The commercial fishery for Atlantic Salmon has been closed since 1962. Atlantic Salmon are known to frequent larger rivers, such as the Little Salmon, Quiddy, Goose, Point Wolfe and Upper Salmon, during certain times of the year (Hunter and Associates, 1982). Lobster fishing has been gaining in importance over the past few years and the industry has utilized the extensive lobster grounds found along the entire coastline (Hunter and Associates, 1982). Lobster fishing is the main commercial fishery operating out of Alma.

The regular tidal circulation of water in the Bay of Fundy has recently been exploited in support of a rapidly growing fish farming industry. The Atlantic Salmon aquaculture industry along the New Brunswick coast has developed most rapidly during the past 15 years. Almost all of this activity is located in the vicinity of St. Andrews, a coastal community to the west of the city of Saint John (Percy, 1996). In recent years, the salmon aquaculture industry has been criticized for degrading water quality in these areas and has been plagued by diseases such as Infectious Salmon Anemia. Other developing aquacultural industries in the Bay include Sea Urchins and Blue Mussels (Hunter and Associates, 1982).

The saltmarshes and mudflats which fringe many parts of the Bay are home for large numbers of waterfowl and other animals and also act as nesting and feeding grounds for many migrating shorebirds (Percy, 1996). In the ISA, salt marshes occur at the mouth of the Quiddy River, Goose Creek and Upper Salmon River (Kilpatrick and Runyon, 1994). Large tracts of the upper Bay of Fundy, including the intertidal flats at Mary’s Point, have been designated a Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve in recognition of their importance as bird habitat (Percy, 1996).

Climate

Two climatic zones, the Bay of Fundy zone and the Southern New Brunswick zone, affect the GFE. The Bay of Fundy climatic zone is characterized by cool summers, mild winters, heavy precipitation and a high incidence of fog that is most frequent during the summer. The Southern New Brunswick climatic zone is characterized by warm summers, cold winters, and relatively lower precipitation and fog frequency (Keith, 1995).

Prevailing winds blow mainly from continental North America. During the winter, Arctic air flowing in from the northwest is dominant (Matson and Power, 1994).

The climate of southern New Brunswick is particularly influenced by the close proximity of the Atlantic Ocean (Hunter and Associates, 1982). The GFE and areas adjacent to the Bay of Fundy experience the strongest maritime influences and thus moderation in both winter and summer climatic extremes. During the winter, the Bay of Fundy area is dominated by cold, continental air masses with occasional incursions of warm air masses from the south (Woodley, 1985). Average annual accumulated freezing degree days for the entire province are shown in Figure 1.6. These figures can be used to indicate severity of winters in different parts of the province. During the summer, the area is influenced by warm maritime air from low to mid latitudes and occasional incursions of cool air from other regions (Woodley, 1985).

Figure 1.6. Average annual accumulated freezing degree days
(degrees Celcius - Day)(Environment Canada, 1989)

The area between Fundy NP and the city of Saint John receives some of the highest total annual precipitation of in the province (about 1450 mm/yr) (Figure 1.7). Total annual snowfall ranges between 200 and 400 cm for most of the GFE area (Figure 1.8).

Figure 1.7. Total annual precipitation (mm) for New Brunswick
(Environment Canada, 1989)

Figure 1.8. Total annual snowfall (cm) for New Brunswick
(Environment Canada, 1989)

Most fog that occurs in the Fundy area during the summer is advection fog. Advection fog forms when warm, moist air from the south is cooled and condensed by the cold waters of the Bay. The amount of acidity in fog may exceed the amount found in rain. Sulphate concentrations in fog moisture moving from industrial regions along the U.S. and New Brunswick coasts had shown a 5-10 fold total increase from 1939 to 1983 (Fiander-Good Associates Ltd., 1994).

Fog moving over Cape Enrage (Photo: A. Skibicki)

Bedrock and Surficial Geology

Much of the region around Fundy NP is underlain by late Precambrian volcanic and sedimentary rocks and related intrusive rocks dating from 900 - 570 million years before present (yBP). The volcanic rocks are characterized by interbedded basalt, andesite, and rhyolite flows and volcanic ejecta or tuff. The sedimentary rocks come in two thick sequences of arkose and sandstone and siltstone conglomerates that are interbedded with the volcanic rocks. Many of these sedimentary rocks were metamorphosed by subsequent earth movements and geologic pressures that occurred through the Paleozoic era (570 - 245 million yBP) (Woodley, 1985; Keith, 1995).

Bedrock outcrops and overlying vegetation at Matthews Head, Fundy NP
(Photo: A. Skibicki)

No new bedrock features have been laid down since the end of the Paleozoic. Since then, the GFE area has been subject to the erosional processes of rivers, several glaciations, and sea level changes (Woodley, 1985).

The last glacial period to have affected the GFE area was the Wisconsin which covered the region about 13,000 yBP. Glaciation has not strongly changed the landscape except for peneplanation and glacial rebound. There are, for example, no drumlins, eskers or moraines in the immediate area of the Park (Woodley, 1985). Glaciofluvial deposits are common and cover over 11% of the Park area. They are characterized by outwash deposits within depressions in the plateau and coastal deltaic terraces (Keith, 1995).

The upland plateau has been incised by steep-sided V-shaped river valleys of which the Point Wolfe River valley is a typical example. Colluvium, including talus and avalanche debris, covers about 6% of the Park area, principally along the lower tributaries of the Point Wolfe River and Mile Brook. Organic peat deposits are found mostly in poorly drained depressions on the plateau. Alluvium is found along stream banks, primarily near the mouths, and also underlies many organic deposits (Keith, 1995).

Soils

Fundy NP is dominated by sandy or gravely loams with minor amounts of organic and disturbed soil components. The soils are mostly coarse to very coarse in texture and generally well drained. The sandy to gravely loam is usually less than one meter in thickness, below which lies bedrock (Woodley, 1985; Keith, 1995; Ruitenberg, 1998).

Podsols are soils with a surface organic layer overlying a mineral soil layer. They are typical of cool, moist, boreal forests and cover about 91% of the Park area, mainly corresponding to the distribution of till and glaciofluvial deposits. Organic soils cover 3% of the Park, mostly in areas with poor drainage. Azonal soils (soils which have no profile) and regosols cover the remaining 6% of the Park (Woodley, 1985; Keith, 1995).

The soils of the Park are thin and coarse and result in low productivity. Many old farmlands which were established in the area of the Park in the 1800’s were abandoned many years before the Park was established due, in part, to the poor quality of the soils (Keith, 1995).

Ecoregions and Ecodistricts

Rowe (1972) mapped the area of the GFE as lying within the Fundy Coast Section of the Acadian Forest Region. He noted that the topography and maritime climatic influences in this region appeared to favour the dominance of Red Spruce on the landscape (Rowe, 1972).

The forest classification of the Maritime Provinces (Loucks, 1972) sub-divided the area into two ecoregions. The Bay of Fundy Ecoregion represented an extreme towards Boreal Forest conditions, with Hemlock and Pine absent, and was mapped as extending all along the coast. Areas that were three to four kilometers away from the coast were described as being in the Maritimes Uplands Eco-Region of the Sugar Maple-Yellow Birch-Fir Zone.

In recent years, efforts have been made by both national and provincial land management agencies to try and address land use issues by observing and measuring their impacts on land areas identified as similar based on their vegetation, topographic and climatic characteristics. Statistics Canada, as an example, has recently conducted a pilot test of its Land Accounting Program in New Brunswick (see Trant and Filoso, 1996). The purpose of the Land Accounting Program is to provide an integrated and nationally consistent set of land statistics for examining land use issues.

For the Land Accounting Program, information on land cover in New Brunswick was mapped by ecoregion using a GIS at a scale of 1:1,000,000. Ecoregion classifications were based upon those established by the Canadian Ecological Land Classification System (Ecological Stratification Working Group, 1995). These classifications have been used as the basis for Environment Canada’s State of the Environment Reports. “Ecoregions” are areas of common biophysical characteristics and are taken to be naturally distinct units. Mapping for the program was supported by tabular datasets which provided various socio-economic data.

The Southern New Brunswick Uplands Ecoregion, as delineated by the Canadian Ecological Land Classification System, encapsulates much of the southern part of the province and extends from the Maine border to the areas north of Fundy NP (Figure 1.9). The area is characterized by a maritime climate and rolling topography. Forest cover is predominant and covered 89% of the ecoregion when the mapping was undertaken in 1992. The remaining land cover was made up of water, barren land, agricultural cropland, and built up areas (Trant and Filoso, 1996).

Figure 1.9. Ecoregions in the GFE: Southern NB Uplands Ecoregion
and Fundy Coast Ecoregion (after Trant and Filoso, 1996).

The Fundy Coast Ecoregion, as delineated by the Canadian Ecological Land Classification System, extends along a narrow band along the Bay of Fundy (Figure 1.9). It is characterized by a maritime climate and relatively flat topography. Forests covered 89% of the ecoregion in 1992. The remaining land cover in 1992 was barren land, water, agricultural cropland and built-up areas.

The Ecological Land Classification for New Brunswick (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996) is a more detailed adaptation of the Canadian Ecological Land Classification System that has been recently completed for the province. The ELC for New Brunswick divided the southern half of the province into several ecoregions (Figure 1.10). Ecoregions were identified based on macroclimate conditions brought about by macro-topography, elevation, broad-scale aspects, and proximity to the oceans as these affect solar radiation and degree of maritime climatic influence (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996). Ecodistricts were identified at a more detailed level and were delineated based on macro-scale landforms which were judged to be distinctive on the basis of broad-scale elevation, slope, aspect and terrain features. Rock formations of uniform age and lithology were also used to identify ecodistricts. Figure 1.11 shows the ecodistricts that have been delineated in the GFE area. The ecodistricts of most relevance to the GFE are the Kennebecasis River Ecodistrict, the Anagance Ridge Ecodistrict, the Petitcodiac River Ecodistrict, the Fundy Plateau Ecodistrict, and the Fundy Coastal Ecodistrict.

Figure 1.10. Ecoregions in the Greater Fundy Ecosystem (DNRE - Ecosystem
Classification Working Group, 1996)

Figure 1.11. Ecodistricts in the Greater Fundy Ecosystem (DNRE - Ecosystem
Classification Working Group, 1996)

The Kennebecasis River Ecodistrict (Figure 1.11) is characterized by the valleys and lowlands of the southern part of the Saint John River. The climate is dry (425 - 450 mm precipitation May-September) and warm ( > 1700 annual growing degree days (5°C basis)). About 60% of the land is covered by intolerant hardwood and by active farmland or abandoned agricultural fields. Most of the choice lands for farming have been cleared. In terms of land tenure, about 60% of the land is held as small freehold and 6% is held as large freehold. About 16% of the land is being used for agriculture. Wetlands comprise 3.7% of the land base. Built-up areas, including the town of Sussex, make up 6.4%. Tolerant hardwoods are mainly found on uncleared river slopes and ridges and include Sugar Maple, Red Maple, Yellow Birch, and Beech with some Red Spruce. Cedar is locally abundant in some areas of calcareous soils. White Pines can be found along rivers and streams with gravely, sandy soils (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996).

The Anagance Ridge Ecodistrict is characterized by a series of northeast trending ridges and valleys. The climate is dry (425 - 450 mm precipitation May-September) and warm (1600 - 1750 annual growing degree days (5°C basis)). About 60% of the land is held as small freehold and 18% as large freehold. As well, 7% of the land is under Crown ownership. About 8.2% of the land is under agriculture and 3.1% is in wetland. The areas overlooking the Kennebecasis River have been heavily logged in the past and today are dominated by intolerant hardwoods of Red Maple, Trembling Aspen, Large-toothed Aspen, White Birch, and Grey Birch. American Beech is a component on some ridge tops. Tolerant hardwoods made up of American Beech, Sugar Maple, and Yellow Birch with some White Ash and Ironwood, are common on higher hills with more fertile soils. Softwood stands are found on lower slopes and some shallow exposed sites and include Red Spruce, Balsam Fir, and White Spruce with some Eastern Hemlock and White Pine. White Pine, Jack Pine and Red Pine are often found on dry, coarse-textured soils and their presence suggests that fires have been an important ecological process in this ecodistrict (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996).

High elevation ridges and valleys near Waterford,
Anagance Ridge Ecodistrict (Photo: A. Skibicki)

The Petitcodiac River Ecodistrict is characterized by low, gently rolling ridges and valleys. The climate here is dry (415 - 450 mm precipitation May-September) and warm ( > 1700 annual growing degree days (5°C basis)). About 49.4% of the land is in small freehold and 13.3% in large freehold. Agriculture is practiced on 16.8% of the land base. Built up areas cover 4% of the land and wetlands cover 3.8%. Forests are dominated by Red Spruce in mixture with Balsam Fir, Red Maple, White Birch and Trembling Aspen. Also commonly found are Tamarack, Eastern Hemlock and White Pine. Sites with organic soils are characterized by Black Spruce. Jack Pine is common in fire disturbed areas. Tolerant hardwoods of Sugar Maple, Beech, and Yellow Birch are found on ridge tops. Aspen dominates the lands adjacent to the Petitcodiac River which have been disturbed by a long period of human settlement (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996).

The Fundy Plateau Ecodistrict is characterized by a broad, gently rolling upland plateau. Rounded hills and peaks can rise to 400 m. The climate is wet (more than 1400 mm of precipitation annually) and cool due to the effect of orographic lifting of air masses moving in from the southwest (1500 - 1650 annual growing degree days (5°C basis)). About 27.5% of the land is under small freehold, 26.6% is under large freehold and 31.3% is Crown owned. As well, an additional 13.3% of the land is classified as Special Management Area and owned by the Crown. Agriculture is a very minor land use, although some large blueberry fields can be found in the area. Tolerant hardwoods of Sugar Maple, Yellow Birch and American Beech with some Red Spruce can be found on well-drained hilltops and ridges; especially in the northern part of the ecodistrict. Some White Ash and Ironwood, considered rare in New Brunswick, can also be found here. Mixed wood communities of Red Spruce, Balsam Fir, and Yellow Birch are found most commonly on northern-oriented ridges that are protected from the cooling effects of the Bay of Fundy. Pure stands of Spruce and Balsam Fir are common on valley bottoms and flat areas. White Birch, mixed with Yellow Birch, Trembling Aspen and Balsam Fir, typifies areas recovering from timber harvest. The few White Pine in the area suggest that fire is not a major disturbance agent (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996).

The Fundy Coastal Ecodistrict is synonymous with the Fundy Coastal Ecoregion. Moisture-laden air masses result in much precipitation (450 mm to more that 500 mm from May-September) and frequent fog. Temperatures tend to be cool in summer and mild in winter (1500 - 1650 annual growing degree days (5°C basis)). Major land uses here include large freehold, Crown land, and small freehold. The forest is typically boreal in composition except that Red Spruce is prominent and Black Spruce is less common. Prominent tree mixtures are Red Spruce-White Spruce-Black Spruce, and Balsam Fir with some Red Maple, White Birch and Yellow Birch. Tolerant hardwoods are rare but when found are made up of mostly Yellow Birch with some Sugar Maple and Beech (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996).

Ecodistricts are composed of Ecosections. Ecosections are a finer scale of reporting in the ELC and can be identified on the basis of and the pattern and density of streams. They can also be distinguished by the mode of deposition, texture, and lithology of the regolith (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996).

Ecosections are themselves composed of Ecosites. Ecosites are a still finer scale of ecological land classification and are distinguished by: i) topoclimate conferred by slope, aspect, and slope position; and, ii) broad-scale soil moisture and fertility that are conferred by mode of deposition, texture, and the lithology of the regolith. Species composition of widespread or common species is significantly different between ecosites (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996).

The finest scale of land classification in the ELC for New Brunswick is the Ecoelement. Ecoelements can be identified by microclimate conferred by soil moisture and nutrient regime and by discontinuous, unique physical elements such as rock outcrops, seeps, caves, and cliffs. Ecoelements are suitable for site-specific reporting and are usually identified through ground reconnaissance, very detailed aerial photography, high-resolution digital elevation data, and forest classification field guides (DNRE - Ecosystem Classification Working Group, 1996).

The ELC has been used recently to identify the potential forests that would be expected to occur in the area of the GFE given climatic and landscape determinants and without human induced changes (see Chapter 3). The intention of the resultant maps was to give some idea of pre-settlement forest conditions that could be used to guide land manager in their actions on a particular piece of land (Zelazny et al., 1997).

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